'Front-loaded' vocational education versus lifelong learning: a critique of current UK government policy

It seems negative and churlish to complain about the use of a phrase like 'lifelong learning', since the attractions of lifelong ignorance are difficult to describe. However, this alluring phrase repays closer scrutiny. It is our contention that its undiscriminating use, particularly when applied to vocational education, carries significant dangers. To be specific, we contend that while vocational expertise continues to grow over a working lifetime, the initial period of vocational education is vital to success in those occupations that require skill, knowledge and judgement. In economic terms, failure to attend to the initial period of vocational education compromises attempts to run the economy as a highskill equilibrium that uses skilled labour to satisfy a demand for high-quality goods and services (Finegold 1991; Crouch 1999; Culpepper 1999; Brown 2001). In personal terms, young people's ability to develop their lives in their working environment is seriously compromised. This, in turn, compromises one of the aims of their education, to choose a satisfying and worthwhile life

Creating an integrated payment system: the evolution of Fedwire

Adapted from remarks given before the Seminar on Payment Systems in the European Union in Frankfurt, Germany, on February 27, 1997.Fedwire ; Electronic funds transfers ; Federal Reserve System

Comparative VET European Research since the 1980s: Accommodating Changes in VET Systems and Labour Markets

The article assesses the role comparative research plays from the 1980s in understanding vocational education and training (VET) systems in Europe, driven by political, economic, social and labour market changes. This research has been transformed, moving from national comparisons of VET systems, grounded in institutional theory and engaging with convergence versus divergence debates or human capital theory, to the varieties of capitalism approach considering groups of countries as representative of particular capitalist economies, to transcending national boundaries and emphasising capitalist diversity, governance and labour agency. Drawing on examples of research in which the authors and others have been involved, particularly on the construction industry, the article traces this development and shows how, despite governance weaknesses, comparative research has been enriched by the addition of a European Union level through the introduction of tools, such as the European Qualifications Framework. Four dimensions are proposed - labour market, governance, education and competence - capable of identifying VET 'families' and intra-national variations and capturing the dynamics of VET systems. Through a multi-dimensional and multi-level framework, comparative VET research can provide a deeper understanding of how and why VET systems respond to the challenges of technological, economic and environmental change

Overcoming diverse approaches to vocational education and training to combat climate change: the case of low energy construction in Europe

Vocational education and training (VET) can play a transformative role in reducing CO2 emissions and improving the energy efficiency of buildings across Europe. Nearly zero energy building (NZEB) requires an energy literate workforce, with broader and deeper theoretical knowledge, higher technical and precision skills, interdisciplinary understanding, and a wide range of transversal competences. Through an investigation into VET for low energy construction (LEC) in 10 European countries, the article identifies a range of different strategies advanced under constraints imposed by the VET systems and construction labour markets. At one extreme, representing the ‘high road’, LEC elements are mainstreamed into broad-based occupational profiles, curricula and qualifications, whilst at the other, the ‘low’ road, short, specific and one-off LEC courses simply aim to plug existing ‘skills’ gaps. It is argued that the ‘high road’ approach, in encompassing a broad concept of agency, successfully addresses NZEB requirements whereas the ‘low road’ represents an instrumentalist approach to labour that jeopardises the achievement of higher energy efficiency standards. The article concludes by presenting a transparency tool set within the European Qualifications Framework, against which different VET for LEC programmes can be assessed

Vocational education and training for a greener construction sector: low road or high road approaches to apprenticeships?

All too often, the issue of climate change is treated as a purely technical one, outside the realm of the social sciences or education. To address it effectively, however, implies a transformation in the vocational education and training (VET) and qualification systems as well as in the labour market. VET can play a major role in reducing CO2 emissions and improving the energy efficiency of buildings across Europe. The paper explains why this is so and what can be done to implement change in the construction, a sector set to gain more employment than any other from the transition to a green economy through policies and programmes for nearly zero energy building (NZEB), renewable energy installations and retrofit across Europe. The imperative of equipping the construction workforce with the appropriate knowledge, skills and competences is an integral part of the European Union (EU) green transition policy for the built environment. Zero carbon and NZEB require the training of millions of construction workers, a different construction process from the traditional one and a significant upgrading of existing VET systems. The complex technical and social challenges confronting construction VET systems throughout Europe and the constraints involved in addressing these are the focus of this paper. The aim is to identify the changes in the quality of labour and in VET required to achieve NZEB and to present a trans-European transparency tool against which different VET programmes for low energy construction (LEC) can be assessed. As apparent from the European Commission’s Build-up Skills initiative, successful NZEB depends on co-ordination and overall project awareness, teamwork and the application of theoretical knowledge to particular circumstances. This requires an energy literate workforce, with broader and deeper theoretical knowledge, higher technical and precision skills, interdisciplinary understanding, and a wide range of transversal competences. The depth and breadth of expertise implied and the qualitative transformation of the construction labour process required also need to be expressed by qualification frameworks to facilitate a uniform approach in conformity with the European Qualifications Framework (EQF). Broadly-based initial VET (IVET) systems and occupational profiles, constructed and maintained through consultation and co-ordination with social partners and based on imparting relevant knowledge, represent the ‘high road’ to energy efficiency in buildings and are best placed to respond to the challenges of climate change. Developing the agency and powers of judgement of workers through VET is not only a promoter of personal development but a means of providing up to date construction expertise. The paper shows how an approach to VET based only on learning outcomes and targeting specific skills, as implied in the European Skills, Competences, Qualifications and Occupations (ESC) initiative, is too narrow and lacking in depth to allow for the systematic application of theoretical LEC knowledge to practice and the development of NZEB expertise in the workplace. Theoretically broader, deeper, more technical and inter-disciplinary expertise is needed to meet European Performance in Buildings Directive (EPBD) targets. Despite this, VET for LEC across Europe has been largely preoccupied just with developing specific ‘skills’ and confined to short and task-specific continuing VET (CVET) courses, representing what can be regarded as the ‘low road’. Mainstreaming the knowledge, skills and competences required for NZEB into IVET curricula is rare though it is achieved in German construction IVET, which takes a standards-based approach, successfully embeds LEC elements and seeks to overcome occupational boundaries and develop a holistic understanding of the construction process. The paper highlights the strengths and weaknesses of different VET systems in meeting NZEB requirements and presents examples from CVET and IVET from different parts of Europe to show what can be done to incorporate LEC elements. Through an investigation in ten European countries, the paper presents the range of different strategies advanced and illustrates the significance of social partnership, the need to overcome the fragmentation of the construction process, and the high-quality VET essential in order to address climate change. It is argued that a ‘high road’ approach, in encompassing a broad concept of agency, successfully addresses NZEB requirements whereas in contrast a ‘low road’ approach represents an instrumentalist approach to labour that jeopardises the achievement of higher energy efficiency standards

Transforming vocational education and training for nearly zero-energy building

Nearly zero-energy building (NZEB) requires the training of millions of construction workers and significant upgrading of vocational education and training (VET) systems across the European Union. This paper shows how an approach to VET based only on learning outcomes and targeting specific skills is too narrow and lacking in depth to allow for the systematic application of theoretical low-energy construction (LEC) knowledge to practice and develop NZEB expertise in the workplace. Theoretically broader, deeper, more technical and interdisciplinary expertise is needed to build to LEC standards and meet European Performance in Buildings Directive (EPBD) targets. Instead, VET for LEC has been largely confined to short and task-specific continuing vocational education and training (CVET) courses, illustrated in the cases of both Slovenia and Ireland and ranging from a narrow, learning outcomes approach to a broader, standards-based approach linking theoretical considerations to specific applications. Mainstreaming the knowledge, skills and competences required for NZEB into initial vocational education and training (IVET) curricula is rare. Though less successful in Finland, it is achieved in Belgian construction IVET, which takes a standards-based approach, successfully embeds LEC elements, and seeks to overcome occupational boundaries and develop a holistic understanding of the construction process

The changing UK paediatric consultant workforce: report from the Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health

Objectives To determine if there had been changes in the size of the UK paediatric workforce and working patterns between 1999 and 2013. Design Analysis of prospectively collected datasets. Setting UK consultant paediatricians. Interventions Data from the Royal College of Paediatrics and Child Health's workforce census from 1999 to 2013 and the annual surveys of new paediatric Certificate of Completion of Training (CCT) and Certificate of Equivalence of Specialist Registration (CESR) holders between 2010 and 2013. Main outcome measures Paediatric consultant numbers, programmed activities (PAs) and resident shift working. Results The UK paediatric consultant workforce grew from 1933 in 1999 to 3718 in 2013. Over the same time period, there was a decline in the number of consultants with a primary academic contract from 210 to 143. There was an increase in the proportion of consultants who were female (40% in 1999 to 50% in 2013, p<0.01). The median number of PAs declined from 11 in 2009 to 10 in 2013 (p<0.001) as did the median number of PAs for supporting professional activities (2.5–2.3, p<0.001). In 2013, 38% of new consultants in general paediatrics or neonatology were working resident shifts. Between 2009 and 2013, the proportion of less than full-time working consultants rose from 18% to 22%, which was more common among female consultants (35% vs 9%). Conclusion The paediatric consultant workforce has doubled since 1999, but more are working less than full time. The decline in those with a primary academic contract is of concern

Skin, Thermal and Umbilical Cord Care Practices for Neonates in Southern, Rural Zambia: A Qualitative Study

Background: In Choma District, southern Zambia, the neonatal mortality rate is approximately 40 per 1000 live births and, although the rate is decreasing, many deliveries take place outside of formal facilities. Understanding local practices during the postnatal period is essential for optimizing newborn care programs. Methods: We conducted 36 in-depth interviews, five focus groups and eight observational sessions with recently-delivered women, traditional birth attendants, and clinic and hospital staff from three sites, focusing on skin, thermal and cord care practices for newborns in the home. Results: Newborns were generally kept warm by application of hats and layers of clothing. While thermal protection is provided for preterm and small newborns, the practice of nighttime bathing with cold water was common. The vernix was considered important for the preterm newborn but dangerous for HIV-exposed infants. Mothers applied various substances to the skin and umbilical cord, with special practices for preterm infants. Applied substances included petroleum jelly, commercial baby lotion, cooking oil and breastmilk. The most common substances applied to the umbilical cord were powders made of roots, burnt gourds or ash. To ward off malevolent spirits, similar powders were reportedly placed directly into dermal incisions, especially in ill children. Conclusions: Thermal care for newborns is commonly practiced but co-exists with harmful practices. Locally appropriate behavior change interventions should aim to promote chlorhexidine in place of commonly-reported application of harmful substances to the skin and umbilical cord, reduce bathing of newborns at night, and address the immediate bathing of HIV-infected newborns